At the end of Part 1 of this transcript, George Albert Smith was so closely involved with the Society for Psychical Research at this point that he became Edmund Gurney’s personal secretary. Edmund Gurney is the second of the three individuals Douglas Blackburn claims in his 1911 confession to have been directly victimized by himself and Smith. Edmund Gurney was a musician, music theorist, philosophical writer, and psychological and psychical researcher. Cambridge-educated, and becoming a Fellow of Trinity College in 1872, Gurney was also honorary secretary of the Society for Psychical Research, for which he was additionally editor of its two periodicals.
According to University of Cambridge Research Associate, Andreas Sommer, “Gurney significantly contributed to the late nineteenth-century literature on hallucinations in the sane, and the psychology of hypnotism and dissociation. He conducted the first large-scale survey of hallucinations in the general public and, with Pierre Janet, was the first to publish experimental data suggesting dissociated streams of consciousness in hypnotism…. . It is argued that … his contributions to psychology have subsequently been marginalized because of the discipline’s paradigmatic rejection of controversial research questions his findings were entangled with. … A consequence of psychology’s lasting uneasiness with it’s occult ‘shadow’ and resulting boundary work, the likes of Gurney and Myers, who enriched the science of the soul by fundamentally challenging it in its infancy, were refused treatment in the standard history of psychology textbooks.” (Sommer A. (2011)
As a further illustration of psychology’s close relationship to the psychical community, Henry Sidgwick, one of the founders and the first president of the Society for Psychical Research, was appointed the second president of the Congress of Experimental Psychology, which eventually became the International Union of Psychological Science. According to their website, “With 82 country members and 20 affiliated organizations, the [International Union of Psychological Science] represents over a million psychologists worldwide. As such it acts for psychology in its full breadth as a science and as a profession.” (International Union of Psychological Science, 2022) Indeed, many prominent members of the Society for Psychical Research made presentations at the congress.
Edmund Gurney was known to be a kind and self-sacrificing person, as evidenced by English writer George Eliot’s use of Gurney’s character in her creation of the eponymous Daniel Deronda. George Eliot, the pen name Mary Ann Evans, was a friend of Edmund Gurney, who stated that Gurney had “a mind as beautiful as his face.” (Gottlieb, 2006) Indeed, according to pioneering British psychiatrist, Dr. Eliot Slater, in his introduction to the 1980 edition of Trevor H. Hall’s controversial The Strange Case of Edmund Gurney, Gurney was exploited by both Frank Podmore and Frederic W.H. Myers. (Slater, 1980)
Frederic W.H. Myers, the third of the three individuals Blackburn claims in his 1911 confession to have been directly victimized by Smith and himself, was a student of Henry Sidgwick’s, who founded the Society for Psychical Research with Sidgwick and Gurney. Henry Sidgwick, the previously mentioned co-founder and prominent member of the Society for Psychical Research, was indirectly, or, as Blackburn worded it, “inferentially”, victimized by Smith and himself. Henry Sidgwick was the utilitarian philosopher and economist who was the Knightsbridge Professor of Moral Philosophy at the University of Cambridge, which is one of the university’s oldest professorships, having been founded in 1683. (Goodwin, 2004) Sidgwick is best known for his seminal work on utilitarian ethics, The Methods of Ethics, which has influenced philosophers for generations, including Bertrand Russel and John Rawls. (Sidgwick, 1981)
Arthur Sidgwick, the younger brother of Henry Sidgwick and a noted academic in his own right, being a Classical scholar of Ancient Greek literature and a Fellow of Corpus Christie College at the University of Oxford, wrote the biographical entry of his friend and his older brother’s prized student, Frederic W.H. Myers, in the Dictionary of National Biography. According to Dr. Eliot Slater’s introduction to the 1980 edition of Trevor H. Hall’s The Strange Case of Edmund Gurney, Sidgwick’s biographical entry of Myers is nothing less than glowing:
… Myers was a scholastic star of the first magnitude. He had learned the whole of Virgil by heart before he had passed school age. In Cheltenham College he won prizes for both Latin and English poems. He went to Trinity with a scholarship in 1860, and subsequently gained further College scholarships, two University scholarships, and six University prizes for English and Latin poems and Latin essays. He was elected a Fellow of Trinity in 1866 and was a classics lecturer for four years. He then gave up his lectureship to join the permanent staff of school inspectors.
But Slater is very critical of both Frank Podmore and Myers in this introduction. He follows Sidgwick’s glowing biography of Myers with the following critical comments:
There were some shabby episodes that Sidgwick does not mention. In 1863 Myers submitted an entry for the Camden Gold Medal for Latin verse and won it. It was quite quickly discovered that he had stolen no fewer than 31 of his hundred or so lines from Oxford prize‑winning poems of the years 1806, 1807, 1812, 1818, 1827, [and] 1830, published in Musae Oxonienses. There was a storm in the pages of the Cambridge Chronicle and University Journal, and Myers was compelled to resign the prize. Very strangely, no further action was taken by the University or College authorities; and two years later he was elected to his Fellowship in 1865, as if he was not a disgraced man. (Slater, 1980)
Indeed, when Myers addressed this episode of plagiarism in his 1893 autobiographical sketch, “Fragments of Inner Life”, he explained away any allegations of intentional plagiarism. He begins with a quotation from Goethe: "Jugend ist Trunkenheit ohne Wein", or “Youth is drunkenness without wine”, and continues,
and few have known either the delight or the folly of that intoxication more fully than I. ... Of the presumption of those early years, I take as an example one braggart act. Having won a Latin prize poem, I was fond of alluding to myself as a kind of Virgil among my young companions. Writing again a similar poem, I saw in my [bookshelves] a collection of Oxford prize poems, which I had picked up somewhere in order to gloat over their inferiority to my own. I laid this out upon my table and forced into my own new poem such Oxford lines as I deemed worthy of preservation. When my friends came in, I would point to this book and say, "Aurum colligo e stercore Ennii” ‑ "I am collecting gold from Ennius's dung heap” ‑ a remark which Virgil used to make with more valid pretensions. My acquaintance laughed; but when my poem was adjudged the best, a disappointed competitor ferreted out these insertions; and the Master of Trinity, although he roundly asserted I had done nothing illegitimate, advised me to resign the prize. Many another act of swaggering folly mars for me the recollection of years which might have brought pure advance in congenial toil. (Myers, 1961)
Slater takes this lack of admission nor demonstration of guilt nor shame to be illustrative of what he calls Myers’ “corruption”: “The trouble with Myers was that he substituted soggy poetry for the hard prose of life. So he drags up to the light of day something which was meanspirited, sneaking and clandestine, to glorify it as a "braggart act" of "staggering folly". He probably felt that those words were the right one. To such a character, words do not have their ordinary meaning.” (Slater, 1980)
Regardless of Slater’s claims, Myers was an impressive figure. His research and theories were influential and are still being studied. For example, in Human Personality and Its Survival of Bodily Death, a two-volume compilation of Myers’ works published posthumously in 1903, Myers researches the unconscious mind and proposes that our personality and soul are part of a larger consciousness that does not rely on our physical form, and therefore, can survive death. Through his research of phenomena which occur outside of the generally recognized neuroscientific understanding, Myers theorizes that we are composed of three parts which form and create the whole of ourselves: the first being our known self, or known consciousness—this is the part we think defines who and how we are; the second being the subliminal consciousness, or the larger, unknown part of us which we understand to be our soul, and exists without the need for earthly form; and the third being the supraliminal field, which functions as a gateway or mediator from one’s known consciousness to one’s subliminal consciousness.
One’s subliminal consciousness can occasionally present itself in the supraliminal field; for example, moments of genius are an example of when the subliminal consciousness is seen as revealing itself in the supraliminal field. Rarely, it can also take possession of the supraliminal field, as seen with mediums or multiple personality. The subliminal consciousness relies on a body only to communicate itself, for example, for the transmission of thoughts, as in telepathy. Myers believes that this explains various psychic phenomena, such as phantasms, hypnotism, and communication from the dead to the living. (Russell, 1903)
In 2007, Edward Francis Kelly, Professor of Research at the Division of Perceptual Studies at the University of Virginia, published Irreducible Mind: Toward a Psychology for the 21st Century, which was largely influenced by the theories proposed by Myers in the two-volume compilation. In it, Kelly et al. propose that, rather than the brain being what produces one’s mind or consciousness, one’s consciousness may exist independently of the brain and body and the brain instead may operate “as an organ which somehow constrains, regulates, restricts, limits, and enables or permits expression of mind.” (Kelly & Kelly, 2009) In other words, the brain is the processor through which the mind or one’s larger consciousness is filtered and refined. Indeed, in 2020, Dr. Kelly received the Myers Memorial Medal from the Society for Psychical Research for contributions to the field. (Kelly E. F., 2022)
Like many who had an interest in the occult, mesmerism, spiritualism, telepathy, and/or psychical research, Frederic W.H. Myers developed his interest due to a lost love. (Ryan, 2010) Annie Eliza Marshall, the wife of Myers’ cousin William Marshall, committed suicide in 1876 at the age of 31 years. According to Dr. Eliot Slater, Myers had courted the married-Annie for three years, culminating in Annie Marshall’s pregnancy. With Annie’s husband, William Marshall, unwilling to give her a divorce, Myers left Annie: “in spite [of Annie’s] acute distress, which was grievously obvious to her father and others ... Anne went into a state of stony depression. About a fortnight later, on the night of 29 August 1876, after stabbing herself [in] the throat with scissors, she flung herself into Lake Ullswater. [The] [n]ext day her mutilated body, clad in a nightdress, was taken from twelve feet of water.” (Slater, 1980) Later, Gurney wrote in his autobiographical sketch of this period: “I would not change those few years of struggle side by side for a long life-time of happy union. Only on 426 days of my life … did I look upon her face: but that was enough. Let two souls, I say, strive side by side, long enough to test and strain their utmost power; then let the nobler pass away; and let that other make of memory a call to highest hope.” (Myers F. W., 1961)
The partnership of Myers, Gurney, and Podmore culminated with the two-volume study, Phantasms of the Living, which documented so-called crisis apparitions, or apparitions experienced, either seen or heard, at the time of crises, such as the apparition experienced by an individual of another who is at or near the moment of death—as in the telepathic hallucinations discussed earlier. Published in 1886, the central thesis for this work was developed by Gurney and Myers, with Myers writing the historical introduction. (Ryan, 2010)
Phantasms of the Living met with heavy criticism. Beyond the expected criticism from those in the scientific community who were critical of parapsychology, the study had basic evidentiary issues. The Scottish lawyer, Alexander Taylor Innes claimed the Society for Psychical Research had shown “a great laxity in testing its evidence,” and lacked scientific objectivity by displaying “a bias in favor of telepathy” (McCuskey, 2021) and challenged the evidentiary legitimacy of postmarked letters. (Peirce, 1982)
Logician, theorist, chemist, and geodesist, Charles Sanders Peirce (pronounced “purse”, often known as the father of American pragmatism, or, as Peirce referred to his philosophy, pragmaticism, (Zalta, 2021) was highly condescending in his criticism of Phantasms of the Living and began a dispute with Gurney. A series of arguments were exchanged between Peirce and Gurney, published in Proceedings of the American Society for Psychical Research.
Peirce’s initial seven pages of criticism was followed by as 22-page rebuttal from Gurney. Not one to be outdone, Peirce responded with a 36-page argument. The tone of these arguments was often contentious, with Peirce continually taking a condescending tone in his replies. According to philosopher and parapsychologist, Dr. Stephen E. Braude: “Using a tone that was perhaps needlessly contemptuous and supercilious, [Peirce] dismisses as deeply confused [Gurney, Myers, and Podmore’s] attempts to rule out the hypothesis of chance by means of statistical arguments. Although Gurney and his collaborators were not as naïve about such arguments as Peirce alleged, at one point Peirce remarks, ‘The continuance of the order of nature, the reality of the external world, my own existence are not as probable as the telepathic theory of ghosts would be if Mr. Gurney’s figures had any real significance.’” (Braude S. E., 1998)
Indeed, Peirce wrote bitingly of the data used in Phantasms of the Living, and of the individuals who reviewed it well: From this [data], [Gurney, et al.] cipher out some very enormous odds in favor of the hypothesis of ghosts. I shall not cite these numbers, which captivate the ignorant, but which repel thinking men, who know well that no human certitude reaches such figures as trillions.” (Peirce, Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, Volume 6, 1886-1890, 2000)
Gurney was finalizing his 14-page response to Peirce’s 36-page reply when he suddenly died, requiring Frederic W.H. Myers to contribute a two-page addendum to Gurney’s response. (Braude S. E., 1998) The circumstances surrounding Gurney’s unexpected death are mysterious. So, what happened to Edmund Gurney?
According to the previously mentioned Dr. Eliot Slater, in his introduction to the 1980 edition of Trevor H. Hall’s controversial The Strange Case of Edmund Gurney, the criticism of Phantasms of the Living was humiliating for the Society for Psychical Research, and the 2-volume study was discredited only a year after it was published. Slater, as you may recall, called Frederic W.H. Myers “corrupt”, and had harsh words for Podmore, as well—calling him “a poor, pathetic creature”. Slater suggests that Edmund Gurney was naïve and foolish in collaborating in his research with George Albert Smith, Frank Podmore, and Frederic W.H. Myers: “One may ask then, how was it that Gurney, a man of honor, worked in intimate collaboration with three dishonest ones.” When the criticism began building, Slater claims, Myers and Podmore, “turned tail and ran. Gurney had to face the music alone. [Gurney’s] self‑esteem, throughout his life a tender plant, was dealt a wound that did not heal. The Society was made to look ridiculous.” (Slater, 1980)
Additionally, author and paranormal skeptic, Trevor H. Hall, claims that Edmund Gurney suffered from manic depression, which we now call bipolar disorder. Hall claims, and Slater, in his introduction, concurs, that Gurney’s manic depression, coupled with his failings with the Society for Psychical Research, left Gurney in a dubious mental state. To add to these troubles, Gurney’s marriage was also struggling. (Blum, 2006)
So, it seems reasonable to conclude that Gurney, who was wrestling with both professional and personal issues, might have been in a depressed mental state. But was his death suicide? Accident? Murder? The circumstances surrounding his death are open for debate.
What we do know is that on the evening of Thursday, June 21, 1888, Gurney was known to have dined with the liberal politician and Member of Parliament, Cyril Flower, First Baron Battersea, at the House of Commons. Gurney was reportedly feeling well and seemed to be in a good mood that evening. When he arrived home later that night, he received a letter asking him to go to Brighton. Who sent this letter and/or why has never been clearly established, but it must have been important—for the next day, Friday, June 22, 1888, Gurney went to Brighton, checking in that evening at the Royal Albion Hotel, a seaside hotel, which is currently listed as a Grade II building by English Heritage and still functions as a hotel.(Coleman, 1992)
As a side note, Albion, translating to white land, is the oldest-known name for the island of Great Britain, being used by the Greeks prior to the 4th century—with the chalk cliffs that comprise the White Cliffs of Dover inspiring the toponym. (The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica, 2022)
Getting back on track, Gurney dined at the hotel that evening and went to bed around 10:00 p.m. This was the last time he was seen alive. The next afternoon, on Saturday, June 23, 1888, hotel staff broke down Gurney’s locked door, as no one had heard from him that day and he didn’t answer his door. He was found in his bed, dead, with his right hand holding a sponge bag over his nose and mouth. Fallen on the floor next to the bed was an uncorked, 3-oz bottle filled with approximately 2 to 3 ml. of a clear, odorless fluid. Edmund Gurney was 41. (Coleman, 1992)
Two days later, on June 25, an inquest was held. The small group of individuals related to the Society of Psychical Research is quite incestuous, with everyone seeming to be involved with everyone regarding various professional and personal matters, either personally or through familial relations. Frederic W.H. Myers’ brother, Dr. Arthur Thomas Myers was Gurney’s doctor and had treated him for facial neuralgia and insomnia, among other ailments. Testifying that he had known Gurney for 19 years, Dr. Myers had previously given Gurney large doses of belladonna, chloral hydrate, and morphia to help ease Gurney’s pain. As Gurney had not found relief from these, and having had medical training himself, he discussed with Myers the possibility of using chloroform for relief; however, Dr. Myers stated he was unsure if Gurney ever actually used this as treatment. (Coleman, 1992)
Dr. Arthur Myers, incidentally, is another figure in this story to have a tragic end. Dr. Myers had been a tennis player who, on his debut, made it to the quarterfinals at Wimbledon in 1878, which was in its infancy at this time, having only been founded the year prior. Myers was a celebrated doctor, but was afflicted with epilepsy, which caused him great suffering and to take his own life 5 years after Gurney’s death, at the age of 42. (Ryan M. , 2010)
Then Gurney’s brother, the Reverend Alfred Gurney, testified at the inquest that his brother had, indeed, been using anesthetics to treat his facial neuralgia and insomnia. The coroner, A.F. Gell, chose not to analyze the contents of Gurney’s stomach, nor the contents of the bottle with the unknown, odorless fluid, perhaps feeling that the testimony had provided enough evidence to conclude the cause of death and the contents of the bottle to be chloroform. The jury then deliberated, returning a verdict of accidental death from an overdose of chloroform while attempting to relieve his facial neuralgia. (Coleman, 1992)
But what of the letter from an unknown sender mysteriously calling Gurney to Brighton? Who had written it … and why? Was this letter in any way related to Gurney’s death?
Author and paranormal skeptic, Trevor H. Hall’s controversial theory is that the letter Gurney received requesting him to come to Brighton came from George Albert Smith’s own sister, Alice Smith. Alice Smith had chosen to write to Gurney at this time, as her brother, George, had gotten married a week and a half earlier and was away on his honeymoon at the time. She used the opportunity of Smith being away to expose his deceit and betrayal to Gurney, Smith’s trusting friend and boss, jeopardizing the validity of the claims, arguments, and evidence produced from the experiments and studies on which Smith individually or Blackburn and Smith together had worked. (Coleman, 1992) The integrity of Gurney’s life’s work and the work on the Society for Psychical Research was now permanently damaged. That it was Gurney’s trusted friend, whom he had known for six years and valued enough to make Smith his personal secretary, made it even more painful.
Facing the possibility of professional ruin, along with the personal betrayal of Smith and Blackburn, the collapse of his marriage, and the critical failure of Phantasms of the Living, on top of his manic-depressive state, Gurney decided to end his life.
The evening of Friday, June 22nd, Gurney emptied his 3-oz bottle of hair oil, purchased chloroform, which he then placed in the emptied bottle, and dined at the hotel. He then went to bed at around 10:00 p.m. and intentionally overdosed on chloroform. (Coleman, 1992)
But research scientist and member of the Society for Psychical Research, (Dr. M. H. Coleman Estate, 2015) Dr. M.H. Coleman, wrote in his 1992 article regarding Trevor H. Hall’s claims:
But this is nonsense! … chemists were not in the habit of supplying drugs in bottles—especially dirty bottles—provided by their customers… In fact, in the nineteenth century, as in the twentieth, both pharmacists and doctors supplied the containers for the substances which they dispensed… Chloroform is listed under Part 2 of Schedule (A) of the Act. Now if Gurney bought chloroform in Brighton (having only decided to kill himself after hearing Alice Smith’s information), it would have been supplied in such a labelled container.
Where then did this container go? It seems most unlikely that this could have been the bottle found beside his bed, since this was both oily and unlabeled. As previously observed, a chemist would not have supplied a drug in a dirty bottle; and Gurney is hardly likely to have scraped off the label. If Gurney bought chloroform in Brighton, it must have been supplied in another bottle; but the only place where Gurney could have inconspicuously transferred the contents to the ‘hair-oil’ bottle would have been in his hotel-room. In which case, what became of the original bottle? If he had discarded it in the waste basket of his room, it would surely have been noticed, and commented upon at the inquest. Indeed the chemist supplying the drug, identified by the required label, would almost certainly have been called to give some account of his dealings with Gurney.
All these problems disappear if Gurney had dispensed chloroform into his hair-oil bottle from a supply in London, before he set out for Brighton. But since he had not then heard whatever Alice Smith is supposed to have told him, and was apparently in good spirits when he set out, it is difficult to suppose that he took chloroform with him, in case he felt like committing suicide that night. These considerations, that Gurney had a supply of chloroform in London, and that he took a small quantity with him to Brighton, would seem to square with the evidence which Dr. Myers gave at the inquest, namely that Gurney suffered from neuralgia, and that he had discussed the use of … chloroform for pain relief; and this evidence had been confirmed by Gurney’s brother, the Reverend Alfred Gurney.
… chloroform was used in three ways for pain relief: (a) internally in small amounts; (b) by inhalation; (c) by topical application. … for topical application [an open gauze pad impregnated with the drug] is best held in place with an impermeable cover, such as the sponge-bag found over gurney’s face. The presence of this bag suggests that Gurney was using chloroform as a counter-irritant by topical application, and any inhalation was unintentional. If the sponge-bag was of the usual rubberized cotton fabric, it suggests that Gurney had not used this procedure before, because chloroform attacks rubber, causing it first to swell and then to crumble. If this was Gurney’s first use of the drug, this would explain why Dr. Myers had no knowledge of Gurney employing it. And if Gurney happened to be one of those individuals hyper-sensitive to chloroform, it might explain how he came to die, in spite of his medical training.
[According to Flagg]: ‘A previous condition of suffering and anxiety … renders a subject who would be otherwise be able to resist a large dosage liable to collapse even under a small dosage.’ … It should be remembered that during the period when chloroform was used under medical supervision as an anesthetic, about one patient in two thousand died under its use. (Coleman, 1992)
Nonetheless, Gurney’s death was keenly felt by even those outside of the Society for Psychical Research. 15 years after Edmund Gurney’s death, Charles S. Peirce, who had been in dispute with Gurney regarding arguments presented in Phantasms of the Living, wrote: “I had a somewhat prolonged controversy with Edmund Gurney which was only interrupted by his death; and this brought me into fine touch with the spirit of the man. I was most strongly impressed with the purity of his devotion to the truth.” (Braude S. E., 1998)
With his boss having unexpectedly died, George Albert Smith then became the personal secretary to Frederic W.H. Myers. The Society for Psychical Research continued its studies, participating in the first Congress of Experimental Psychology, which was held the next year in 1889 in Paris. The same year as the first Congress, Smith co-authored a paper for the Society’s journal, entitled “Experiments in Thought Transference.” (American Society for Psychical Research, 2017) Between 1889 and 1891, Smith was involved in more experiments involving hypnosis, acting as both the agent and the hypnotizer. (Podmore, The Naturalisation of the Supernatural, 1908)
But by the time of the second Congress of Experimental Psychology, held in London in 1892, for which Henry Sidgwick was the president and gave the opening address, (Editors of The Athenaeum, 1892) George Albert Smith, at the age of 28, seems to have left the Society, though he remained an associate member for the rest of his life. That, as a part of Smith’s work with the society, his new bride was expected to live in an allegedly haunted house may have had something to do with Smith’s decision to move on. On Christmas Eve of 1892, he announced that he had leased St. Ann’s Well Gardens in Hove, part of the city Brighton and Hove in East Sussex. By going back to his theatrical roots, Smith will soon discover the new creative medium of film, and a new world dawning.
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Hello all! A reader/listener brought this resource of international papers to our attention and we thought it would be good to share it here:
https://www.websiteplanet.com/blog/complete-index-of-newspapers-across-the-globe/
Hope this helps!
Rhapsody in 35MM